# Timeseries models

.ml.ts Timeseries models

AR: AutoRegressive AR.fit Fit an AR model AR.predict Predict future values using a fitted AR model

ARCH: AutoRegressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity ARCH.fit Fit an ARCH model ARCH.predict Predict future volatility values using a fitted ARCH model

ARMA: AutoRegressive Moving Average ARMA.fit Fit an ARMA model ARMA.predict Predict future values using a fitted ARMA model

ARIMA: AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average ARIMA.aicParam Optimal input parameters for an ARIMA model based on Akaike Information Criterion score ARIMA.fit Fit an ARIMA model ARIMA.predict Predict future values using a fitted ARIMA model

SARIMA: Seasonal AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average SARIMA.fit Fit a SARIMA model SARIMA.predict Predict future values using a fitted SARIMA model

Distinguish endogenous and exogenous variables.

Endogenous

The values of the variable are determined by the model, i.e. form the basis for predicting a ‘target’ variable

Exogenous

Any variable whose value is determined outside of the model and which may impose an effect on the endogenous variable, i.e. if there is a national holiday this may affect the endogenous variable, but is completely independent of its behavior.

## AutoRegressive (AR) model

An AR model is a form of timeseries modelling where the output values of the model depend linearly on previous values in the series and a stochastic term. This model is suitable for use cases where there is a correlation between values in the past and future behavior of the system. An AR model uses $p$ historical lag values to calculate future values.

The equation for an AR model is given by:

y_t= \mu + \sum_{i=1}^{p} \phi_{i} y_{t-i}

Where:

• $y_t$ is the value of the timeseries at time $t$
• $y_{t-i}$ is the value of the timeseries at time $t-i$
• $\mu$ is the trend value
• $\phi_{i}$ is the lag parameter at time $t-i$

### .ml.ts.AR.fit

Fit an AR forecasting model based on a timeseries dataset

.ml.ts.AR.fit[endog;exog;p;tr]


Where:

• endog is an endogenous variable as a list (timeseries)
• exog is a table of exogenous variables; if (::)/(), then exogenous variables ignored
• p is the number of lag values to include (integer)
• tr whether a trend is to be accounted for (boolean)

returns a dictionary containing the model parameters and data required for the forecasting of future values:

params       model paramaters for future predictions
tr_param     trend paramaters
exog_param   exog paramaters
p_param      lag value paramaters
lags         lagged values from the training set

// Example timeseries
q)timeSeries:100?10f

// Fit an AR model with no exogenous variables
q).ml.ts.AR.fit[timeSeries;();3;1b]
params    | 4.936532 0.03997196 0.03751383 0.005364343
tr_param  | ,4.936532
exog_param| float$() p_param | 0.03997196 0.03751383 0.005364343 lags | 0.8175513 2.401967 5.784208 // Fit the same model with exogenous variables included q)exogVar:([]100?10f;100?1f) q).ml.ts.AR.fit[timeSeries;exogVar;3;1b] params | 5.994866 -0.2057255 -1.904434 0.06913882 0.04123651 -0.01732191 tr_param | ,5.994866 exog_param| -0.2057255 -1.904434 p_param | 0.06913882 0.04123651 -0.01732191 lags | 0.8175513 2.401967 5.784208  ### .ml.ts.AR.predict Predict future values of a timeseries using a fitted AR model .ml.ts.AR.predict[mdl;exog;len]  Where • mdl is a dictionary returned from a fitted AR model • exog is a table of exogenous variables; if (::)/() then exogenous variables ignored • len is the number of values that are to be predicted (integer) returns the predicted values. Future exog variables should be in the same format as the exog variables used when fitting the model, and also must have the same length as the number of values to be predicted (len) // Generate an AR model q)timeSeries:100?10f q)exogVar:([]100?10f;100?1f) q)show ARmdl:.ml.ts.AR.fit[timeSeries;exogVar;3;1b] params | 5.994866 -0.2057255 -1.904434 0.06913882 0.04123651 -0.01732191 tr_param | ,5.994866 exog_param| -0.2057255 -1.904434 p_param | 0.06913882 0.04123651 -0.01732191 lags | 0.8175513 2.401967 5.784208 // Use the fit model and set of exogenous variables to make predictions q)exogFuture:([]10?10f;10?1f) q).ml.ts.AR.predict[ARmdl;exogFuture;10] 3.822056 3.727468 4.99475 3.499939 3.844594 4.326576 5.916375 4.12185 3.85929  ## AutoRegressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity (ARCH) model An ARCH model is a statistical model used to describe the volatility of a timeseries. This models the variance of a point in the data series as a function of the sum the past residual errors squared. This model is appropriate to use when the error variance in the timeseries follows an AR model as described above. ARCH models are used in timeseries data that experience time-varying volatility and as such are commonly employed in the modeling of financial timeseries exhibiting varying volatility. The formula for an ARCH model is given by: \hat{\epsilon}_{t}^{2}=\hat{\alpha}_{0}+\sum_{i=1}^{q} \hat{\alpha}_{i} \hat{\epsilon}_{t-i}^2 Where: • $\hat{\epsilon}_{t}$ is the residual error term • $\hat{\alpha}_{0}$ is the mean term • $\hat{\alpha}_{i}$ is past error squared coefficient ### .ml.ts.ARCH.fit Fit an ARCH model based on a set of residual errors from a fitted AR model .ml.ts.ARCH.fit[resid;lags]  Where • resid is the residual errors obtained from the results of a fitted AR model • lags the number of previous error terms to include returns a dictionary containing the model parameters and data to be used for the forecasting of future volatility: params model paramaters for future predictions tr_param trend paramaters exog_param exog paramaters p_param lag value paramaters resid lagged residual errors from the input training set  q)residuals:100?10f q).ml.ts.ARCH.fit[residuals;2] params | 30.55546 0.05927539 0.0799694 tr_param| 30.55546 p_param | 0.05927539 0.0799694 resid | 9.187684 39.17214  ### .ml.ts.ARCH.predict Predict the future volatility of a timeseries using a fitted ARCH model .ml.ts.ARCH.pred[mdl;len]  Where • mdl is a dictionary from fitting an ARCH model • len is the number of future volatility values to be predicted (integer) // Generate an ARCH model for use in prediction q)residuals:100?10f q)show ARCHmdl:.ml.ts.ARCH.fit[residuals;1] params | 37.38337 -0.07879272 tr_param| 37.38337 p_param | ,-0.07879272 resid | ,26.18578 // Predict volatility based on a fitted model q).ml.ts.ARCH.predict[ARCHmdl;10] 35.32012 34.6004 34.65711 34.65264 34.65299 34.65296 34.65296 34.65296 34.652.  ## AutoRegressive Moving Average (ARMA) model An ARMA model is a timeseries model that is an extension of the AR model. An ARMA model can be used to describe any weakly stationary stochastic timeseries in terms of two polynomials, the first of these is for autoregression based on p lag values, the second for the moving average based on q past residual errors. The equation for the ARMA model is given by: y_t= \mu + \sum_{i=1}^{p} \phi_{i} y_{t-i} + \sum_{i=1}^{q} \theta_{i} \epsilon_{t-i} Where: • $y_t$ is the value of the timeseries at time $t$ • $\mu$ is the trend value • $p$ is the order of lagged values to be accounted for in model generation • $q$ is the order of residual errors to be accounted for in model generation • $y_{t-i}$ is the value of the timeseries at time $t-i$ • $\phi_{i}$ is the lag parameter at time $t-i$ • $\epsilon_{t-i}$ is the residual error term at time $t-i$ • $\theta_{i}$ is the residual error parameter at time $t-i$ ### .ml.ts.ARMA.fit Fit an ARMA forecasting model based on a provided timeseries dataset .ml.ts.ARMA.fit[endog;exog;p;q;tr]  Where • endog is an endogenous variable as a list (time-series) • exog is a table of exogenous variables; if (::)/() then exogenous variables ignored • p is the number of lag values to include (integer) • q is the number of residual errors to include (integer) • tr is whether a trend is to be accounted for (boolean) returns a dictionary containing the model parameters and data to be used for the forecasting of future values: params model paramaters for future predictions tr_param trend paramaters exog_param exog paramaters p_param lag value paramaters q_param error paramaters lags lagged values from the training set resid q residual errors calculated from training set using the params estresid coefficients used to estimate resid errors pred_dict a dictionary containing information about the model used for fitting  q)timeSeries:100?10f q)exogVar:([]100?10f;100?1f) q).ml.ts.ARMA.fit[timeSeries;exogVar;2;1;0b] params | 0.3357414 0.3990257 0.09559668 0.8129534 -0.5975123 tr_param | 0n exog_param| 0.3357414 0.3990257 p_param | 0.09559668 0.8129534 q_param | ,-0.5975123 lags | 0.8175513 2.401967 5.784208 resid | ,2.761882 estresid | 0.2177284 0.9401804 0.2752396 0.2903253 0.2554238 pred_dict | pqtr!(2;1;0b)  ### .ml.ts.ARMA.predict Predict future values of a timeseries using a fitted ARMA model .ml.ts.ARMA.predict[mdl;exog;len]  Where • mdl is a dictionary returned from a fitted ARMA model • exog is a table of exogenous variables; if (::)/() then exogenous variables ignored • len is the number of values that are to be predicted (integer) returns the future predicted values. // Generate an ARMA model q)timeSeries:100?10f q)show ARMAmdl:.ml.ts.ARMA.fit[timeSeries;();2;1;0b] params | 0.2363127 5.656993 -5.419003 tr_param | 0n exog_param| float$()
p_param   | 0.2363127 5.656993
q_param   | ,-5.419003
lags      | 0.8175513 2.401967 5.784208
resid     | ,5.49667
estresid  | 0.03874406 0.03694788 0.008526308
pred_dict | pqtr!(2;1;0b)

// Use the fit model to make future predictions
q).ml.ts.ARMA.predict[ARMAmdl;();10]
3.502366 3.120234 3.394482 3.605035 3.17703 3.109334 3.072042 3.002552 2.8720...


## AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model

An ARIMA model is an extension of the ARMA model. As with the ARMA model, this takes into account lagged values and past residual errors when generating the model and predictions. The integrated aspect of the model is the result of differencing the timeseries d times in order to generate a ‘stationary’ timeseries.

Once differenced and stationary, an ARMA model can be generated and applied to forecast future values.

Any timeseries which has non seasonal components (daily/annual cycles) can be modelled using this method.

The equation for an ARIMA model is given by

\hat{y}_{t}= \mu + \sum_{i=1}^{p} \phi_{i} y_{t-i} + \sum_{i=1}^{q} \theta_{i} \epsilon_{t-i}

Where:

• $\hat{y}_{t}$ is the differenced timeseries at time $t$
• $\mu$ is the trend value
• $p$ is the order of lagged values to be accounted for in model generation
• $q$ is the order of residual errors to be accounted for in model generation
• $y_{t-i}$ is the value of the timeseries at time $t-i$
• $\phi_{i}$ is the lag parameter at time $t-i$
• $\epsilon_{t-i}$ is the residual error term at time $t-i$
• $\theta_{i}$ is the residual error parameter at time $t-i$
Stationary timeseries

A timeseries is stationary if its statistical properties such as mean, variance and autocorrelation do not change over time. A timeseries with trends or seasonality are not stationary.

Differencing can be applied to a non-stationary timeseries in order to make it stationary. This involves computing the difference between consecutive observations in the timeseries a number of times.

stationarity is a function to test if a timeseries or set of timeseries are stationary.

Akaike Information Criterion

The Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) is an estimator of in-sample prediction error. It is often used as a means of model selection. Given a collection of models for a dataset, AIC estimates the quality of each model relative to each of the other models and chooses that which minimizes the AIC score.

In cases where the out-of-sample prediction error is expected to differ from in-sample prediction error it is better to use cross-validation.

The equation for calculation of the AIC score for a large sample size is given by:

AIC = 2(k - \hat{L})

Where

• k is the number of estimated parameters for the model.
• $\hat{L}$ is the maximum value of the likelihood function for the model being fitted.

### .ml.ts.ARIMA.aicParam

Use AIC score to determine the optimal model parameters for an ARIMA model

.ml.ts.ARIMA.aicParam[train;test;len;dict]


Where

• train is a training-data dictionary with keys endogexog
• test is a testing data dictionary with keys endogexog
• len is the number of values that are to be predicted (integer)
• dict is a dictionary of different input parameters to score

returns a dictionary indicating the optimal input model parameters to use for an ARIMA model along with the associated AIC score.

// Generate data for AIC parameter example
q)timeSeriesTrain:100?10f
q)timeSeriesTest:10?10f
q)exogTrain:([]100?10f;100?1f)
q)exogTest:([]10?10f;10?1f)
q)trainDict:endogexog!(timeSeriesTrain;exogTrain)
q)testDict:endogexog!(timeSeriesTest;exogTest)
q)show param:pdqtr!(5 2 3 4;1 0 1 0;0 1 2 1;1011b)
p | 5 2 3 4
d | 1 0 1 0
q | 0 1 2 1
tr| 1 0 1 1

// Optimize an ARIMA model based on AIC score
q).ml.ts.ARIMA.aicParam[trainDict;testDict;10;param]
p    | 2
d    | 0
q    | 1
tr   | 0b
score| 30.69017


### .ml.ts.ARIMA.fit

Fit an ARIMA forecasting model based on a provided timeseries dataset

.ml.ts.ARIMA.fit[endog;exog;p;d;q;tr]


Where

• endog is an endogenous variable as a list (time-series)
• exog is a table of exogenous variables; if (::)/() then exogenous variables ignored
• p is the number of lag values to include (integer)
• d is the order of differencing being used (integer)
• q is the number of residual errors to include (integer)
• tr is whether a trend is to be accounted for (boolean)

returns a dictionary containing the model parameters and data required for the forecasting of future values:

params      model paramaters for future predictions
tr_param    trend paramaters
exog_param  exog paramaters
p_param     lag value paramaters
q_param     error paramaters
lags        lagged values from the training set
resid       q residual errors calculated from training set using the params
estresid    coefficients used to estimate resid errors
origs       original values to use to transform seasonal differencing to original format
pred_dict   a dictionary containing information about the model used for fitting


In general, differencing (d) of order 2 or less suffices to make a timeseries stationary for an ARIMA model.

q)timeSeries:100?10f
q)exogVar:([]100?10f;100?1f)
q).ml.ts.ARIMA.fit[timeSeries;exogVar;3;1;2;1b]
params    | 1.384112 -0.4446267 -1.691142 0.3371663 0.4316854 0.001379319 -0...
tr_param  | 1.384112
exog_param| -0.4446267 -1.691142
p_param   | 0.3371663 0.4316854 0.001379319
q_param   | -0.433886 -0.893045
lags      | -1.977541 -5.295681 1.584416 3.382242
resid     | -3.129498 2.357047
estresid  | 0.02338816 -0.3251655 -0.2532815 -0.3050295 -0.5411733 -0.7709497
pred_dict | pqtr!(3;2;1b)
origd     | ,5.784208


### .ml.ts.ARIMA.predict

Predict future values of a timeseries using a fitted ARIMA model

.ml.ts.ARIMA.predict[mdl;exog;len]


Where

• mdl is a dictionary returned from fitting an ARIMA model
• exog is a table of exogenous variables; if (::)/() then exogenous variables ignored
• len is the number of values to be predicted (integer)

returns the future predicted values.

// Generate an ARIMA model
q)timeSeries:100?10f
q)exogVar:([]100?1f;100?1f)
q)show ARIMAmdl:.ml.ts.ARIMA.fit[timeSeries;exogVar;2;1;0;1b]
params    | 0.1901339 0.05783913 -1.025339 -0.3470224 -0.6955525
tr_param  | ,0.1901339
exog_param| 0.05783913 -1.025339
p_param   | -0.3470224 -0.6955525
lags      | 1.584416 3.382242
q_param   | ()
resid     | ()
origd     | ,5.784208

// Use the fit model and set of exogenous variables to make predictions
q)exogFuture:([]10?1f;10?1f)
q).ml.ts.ARIMA.predict[ARIMAmdl;exogFuture;10]
2.540794 3.437806 4.324895 2.921683 3.768364 2.919457 3.347546 3.741517 3.715..


## Seasonal AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average (SARIMA)

A SARIMA model is an extension of the ARIMA model. As noted previously, ARIMA models cannot be used in cases where there is cyclical variability in the behavior of the timeseries.

Examples of cyclic variability in a timeseries:

• Sales in many retail stores have yearly cycles with increases in demand around the holidays and during annual sales.
• The use of electricity in a household has both a yearly and daily cycle with more use during the evening than at night and similarly more use in winter than summer.
• Weather patterns also contain daily and yearly cycles with temperature changing from day to night and winter to summer

Similar to the ARIMA model which accounts for historical lag components $p$, residual errors $q$ and a set of timeseries differencing $d$, the seasonal component of a SARIMA model has equivalent components.

• $P$ is the autoregressive lag term of the seasonal component of the model
• $Q$ is the residual moving average term of the seasonal component model
• $D$ is the seasonal differencing term of the model

SARIMA models are usually denoted by the following definition

ARIMA(p,d,q)(P,D,Q)_{m}

where the upper-case components are as defined above, and $m$ refers to the number of periods in each season.

### .ml.ts.SARIMA.fit

Fit an SARIMA forecasting model based on a provided timeseries dataset

.ml.ts.SARIMA.fit[endog;exog;p;d;q;tr;s]


Where

• endog is an endogenous variable as a list (time-series)
• exog is a table of exogenous variables; if (::)/() then exogenous variables ignored
• p is the number of lag values to include (integer)
• d is the order of differencing being used (integer)
• q is the number of residual errors to include (integer)
• tr is whether a trend is to be accounted for (boolean)
• s is a dictionary of seasonal P,D,Q and m (periodicity) components

returns a dictionary containing the model parameters and data required for the forecasting of future values:

params       model paramaters for future predictions
tr_param     trend paramaters
exog_param   exog paramaters
p_param      lag value paramaters
q_param      error paramaters
P_param      seasonal lag value paramaters
Q_param      seasonal error paramaters
lags         lagged values from the training set
resid        q residual errors calculated from training set using the params
estresid     coefficients used to estimate resid errors
origd        original values of input values before being differenciated
origs        original values to transform seasonal differencing to original format
pred_dict    a dictionary containing information about the model used for fitting


Consistency across platforms

When applying optimization algorithms in kdb+, subtracting small values from large to generate deltas to find the optimization direction may result in inconsistent results across operating systems.

This is due to potential floating-point precision differences at the machine level and issues with subtractions of floating point numbers more generally. These issues may be seen in the application of .ml.ts.SARIMA and .ml.optimize.BFGS.

q)timeSeries:100?10f
q)exogVar:([]100?10f;100?1f)
q)show s:PDQm!2 0 1 10
P| 2
D| 0
Q| 1
m| 10
q).ml.ts.SARIMA.fit[timeSeries;exogVar;3;0;1;1b;s]
params    | 7.884855 0.06814395 -1.941512 0.07451696 0.06945657 -0.02878508 0..
tr_param  | 7.884855
exog_param| 0.06814395 -1.941512
p_param   | 0.07451696 0.06945657 -0.02878508
q_param   | ,0.0426231
P_param   | -0.3060438 -0.02981245
Q_param   | ,0.3060438
lags      | 8.785244 7.917149 9.368097 9.354093 1.198466 9.861346 2.987363 9...
resid     | -2.51953 -0.5106217 -2.752604 2.912639 3.998895 -0.8393589 2.6420..
estresid  | 0.2759621 0.5415452 0.09872066 0.2684686 0.2644688 0.224076
pred_dict | pqPQmtrseas_add_Pseas_add_Qn!(3;1;0 10;,0;10;1b;1 2 3 11..
origd     | float$() origs | float$()


### .ml.ts.SARIMA.predict

Predict future values of a timeseries using a fitted SARIMA model

.ml.ts.SARIMA.predict[mdl;exog;len]


Where

• mdl is a dictionary returned from fitting a SARIMA model
• exog is a table of exogenous variables; if (::)/() then exogenous variables ignored
• len is the number of values to be predicted (integer)

returns the future predicted values.

// Generate a SARIMA model
q)timeSeries:100?10f
q)exogVar:([]100?10f;100?1f)
q)s:PDQm!3 0 1 5
q)show SARIMAmdl:.ml.ts.SARIMA.fit[timeSeries;exogVar;2;0;1;0b;s]
params    | 0.3320696 -1.755837 0.3552354 -0.07180415 -0.05615472 -0.07299491..
tr_param  | 0n
exog_param| 0.3320696 -1.755837
p_param   | 0.3552354 -0.07180415
q_param   | ,-0.05615472
P_param   | -0.07299491 -0.003728334 0.301681
Q_param   | ,0.07299491
lags      | 2.987363 9.845271 6.048108 3.090942 7.947873 5.64229 2.543918 4.6..
resid     | -1.545894 3.910773 -0.1293132 -2.996627 -3.1072 2.496399
estresid  | 0.2396791 1.196061 0.2354901 0.1959916 0.178039
pred_dict | pqPQmtrseas_add_Pseas_add_Qn!(2;1;0 5 10;,0;5;0b;1 2 6 7..
origd     | float$() origs | float$()

// Use the fit model and set of exogenous variables to make predictions
q)exogFuture:([]10?1f;10?1f)
q).ml.ts.SARIMA.predict[SARIMAmdl;exogFuture;10]
4.120073 4.828971 5.943532 3.411156 4.342353 2.056176 4.707504 4.516458 6.316
`